Ma nhai (stone epitaphs) at the Marble Mountains

On the walls within the caves of the Marble Mountains, a national special relic site, the traces of Ma nhai have been carefully preserved by the people of the city. These inscriptions serve as authentic historical records and represent a treasure trove of valuable documentary heritage in Han and Nom scripts, created in great numbers by Nguyen dynasty emperors and mandarins, eminent monks, and generations of scholars and men of letters who once paused to leave their marks on the cliffs and caves of the Marble Mountains from the first half of the 17th century to the 1960s of the 20th century.

TRACES OF THE PAST REMAIN

Historically, the Marble Mountains have been a spiritual and religious center, where the Cham people expressed their reverence toward the supreme deities.

From the 17th to the 19th centuries, the Marble Mountains became a Buddhist center of Đàng Trong (the Inner Realm of Vietnam). During this period, along with the development of foreign trade in Đàng Trong, the Marble Mountains, situated beside the Cổ Cò River—a waterway linking the Han Estuary to the Đại Chiêm Estuary and connecting the main trade route from Da Nang to the Hội An trading port—emerged as an ideal stopover for Japanese, Chinese, and Arab merchants, as well as Western traders and missionaries.

Historically, the Marble Mountains have been a spiritual and religious center, where the Cham people expressed their reverence toward the supreme deities. Photo: Kim Liên

The clearest evidence of this is found in the inscriptions recorded on Ma nhai such as Ngũ Uẩn Sơn Cổ Tích Phật Diệt Lạc, Nam Bảo Đài Hinh Bi, Phước Quảng Sa Môn, and Phổ Đà Sơn Linh Trung Phật. However, there were times when the relics and Ma nhai at the Marble Mountains were damaged by war.

According to many historical records, from 1802, when the Nguyen dynasty chose Thua Thien Hue as the imperial capital, Da Nang became an important southern stronghold safeguarding the dynasty. As a result, Da Nang received special attention from the Nguyen court, with the emperors frequently conducting inspections and visiting many scenic sites in the area, including the Marble Mountains.

In particular, Emperor Minh Mạng visited the Marble Mountains three times. Following these journeys, he ordered the restoration and enhancement of the site, primarily focusing on the construction and renovation of pagodas, the sculpting of statues, the casting of bells, and the provision of Buddhist scriptures.

Following Emperor Minh Mạng, the later emperors Thiệu Trị, Tự Đức, and Thành Thái also bestowed special favor upon the Marble Mountains. Accompanying the Nguyen emperors on their visits to this scenic site were princes, high-ranking mandarins, and renowned scholars, many of whom composed poems and inscriptions that were carved onto the rock walls inside the caves.

These are literary works that reflect the authors’ aesthetic sensibilities, emotions, and personal affection when beholding the nation’s magnificent and wondrous natural scenery. Through them, the authors also conveyed their trust and pride in a beautiful country, a glorious history, and a people with a long-standing cultural tradition. Examples include the poems Khả Lân Sơn Sắc, Vọng Ngũ Hành Sơn, and Ngũ Hành Tú Sắc. Particularly notable is the poem Phong Nguyệt Tỉnh Thành, composed in the ca trù style in Nom script by Nguyễn Văn Mại, the Quang Nam Provincial Administrator (Bố chánh).

Ma nhai Ngũ Uẩn Sơn Cổ Tích Phật Tịch Diệt Lạc

Ma nhai Linh Nham Động (royal calligraphy of Emperor Minh Mạng)

According to the Ngu Hanh Son Luc records: “From then on, emperors of successive dynasties all came for imperial visits, officials often came to admire the scenery, and poems, inscriptions, and dedications were carved onto the rock walls inside the caves.”

However, after the fall of the Nguyen dynasty in 1945, due to the impacts of successive wars, Ma nhai at the Marble Mountains gradually ceased to appear. Since the Ma nhai “Du Ngũ Hành Sơn” by Thích Diệu Ngộ, carved in 1961, no further inscriptions have been created.

The Ma nhai system at the Marble Mountains consists of 78 texts in Han and Nom scripts, inscribed on the cliffs and within the caves of the site, featuring diverse content, unique forms, and encompassing a wide range of literary genres.

Among them, approximately 21 Ma nhai are found in Hoa Nghiem Cave, 30 in Huyen Khong Cave, 20 in Tang Chon Cave, 2 in Van Thong Cave, 3 in Linh Nham Cave, with others scattered in various locations.

Among the caves of the Marble Mountains, Hoa Nghiem Cave and Huyen Khong Cave are the two sites with the most diverse inscriptions of poetry and prose. These works of literature and calligraphy are remarkable and visually striking, leaving a profound impression on visitors.

The Ma nhai system at the Marble Mountains comprises 78 texts in Han and Nom scripts, inscribed on the cliffs and within the caves.

A typical example is the poem Bạch Thạch Hoàng Sa Thúy Tác Đôi by Grand Minister Trương Quang Đản, inscribed on the rock wall of Huyen Khong Cave in a highly elegant cursive script (Hành đá Thảo). Another is the Hát Nói piece by Tiểu Cao Nguyễn Văn Mại, placed on a flat stone slab affixed to the left side near the entrance of Huyen Khong Cave. Although there is now a small crack at the lower right corner, the characters remain intact, clear, and exquisitely beautiful.

The art of carving is most clearly reflected in the Ma nhai steles dating from the Nguyen Lords’ era, among which the two most prominent are Ngũ Uẩn Sơn Cổ Tích Phật Tịch Diệt Lạc and Phổ Đà Sơn Linh Trung Phật. Both of these Ma nhai date back to the 17th century, making them the earliest among the surviving steles. Their decorative style is distinctive, bearing the strong imprint of the Nguyen Lords’ period.

According to the inscriptions on the steles Phổ Đà Sơn Linh Trung Phật (1640) and Ngũ Uẩn Sơn Cổ Tích Phật Tịch Diệt Lạc (1631), Buddhism in this area had already achieved widespread and international influence as early as the 17th century. Both inscriptions recount how Zen master Huệ Đạo Minh (a native of Du Xuyen Commune, Ngoc Son District, Tinh Gia Prefecture) came to restore Buddhist relics, establish a Buddhist hall, and, together with devotees from near and far, carry out Buddhist practices at the Marble Mountains. They also express praise and prayers for the protection of the Dharma and the salvation of all beings. The Ma nhai further records the list of benefactors who made contributions. Both steles were erected by Zen master Huệ Đạo Minh upon the completion of these Buddhist works.

Ma nhai at the Marble Mountains

Data from these two Ma nhai also reveal that, at the time, the Marble Mountains had already become a spiritual and cultural center not only for the Vietnamese but also for the Japanese and Chinese. The list of 82 devotees and the amounts they contributed, inscribed on Phổ Đà Sơn Linh Trung Phật, clearly demonstrates this. The total offerings were substantial—1,915 quan of cash, 65 taels of silver ingots, and 570 cân of copper—for the construction of Bình An Pagoda. However, the significance lies not in the wealth or the number of devotees, but in their identities and places of origin. Among the Vietnamese donors were individuals from distant localities such as present-day Hòa Vang, Điện Bàn, and Hội An districts. Notably, there were also several Chinese and Japanese contributors.

In Tang Chon Cave, there remains a Ma nhai stele whose inscription has been chiseled away, leaving only its five-character title: “南寶薹馨碑” (Nam Bảo Đài Hinh Bi). Based on its decorative motifs, this stele, together with two others, belongs to the category of ancient steles from the Nguyen Lords’ era. Such motifs are not found on later Ma nhai at the Marble Mountains.

To accomplish this, in addition to skillful craftsmanship and professional experience, the artisans also needed knowledge of literature, mastery of poetic artistry, and meticulous precision. The Ma nhai steles were thus created through the harmonious combination of the poets’ spirit and talent with the experience and artistry of the Non Nuoc stone-carving craftsmen.

EFFORTS TO FURTHER FULFILL THE MISSION OF PRESERVING AND PROMOTING HERITAGE VALUES

The Ma nhai at the Marble Mountains embody values that transcend national boundaries. They are a source of honor and pride for Vietnam as a whole and for Da Nang City in particular. Over the years, Da Nang has been making continuous efforts to implement various measures to better fulfill the mission of preserving and promoting the value of Ma nhai at the Marble Mountains, worthy of their status as Documentary Heritage under the UNESCO Memory of the World Programme for the Asia-Pacific Region.

UNIQUE AND RARE

According to researchers, the Ma nhai system at the Marble Mountains is an exceptionally rare source of documentary heritage, carrying immense value that transcends time. This system also embodies uniqueness and rarity.

The uniqueness of the Ma nhai is clearly demonstrated by the fact that each inscription is an independent and singular entity—unrepeatable and not a mass-produced product. Moreover, every textual unit within the Ma nhai system at the Marble Mountains exists as a one-of-a-kind entity, distinct from others in its material form of inscription, textual content, and mode of expression. This renders each Ma nhai inscription unique, with no equivalent substitute.

The uniqueness of the Ma nhai is clearly demonstrated by the fact that each inscription is an independent and singular entity—unrepeatable and not a mass-produced product. Photo: Minh Trí

“Compared with other renowned sites of stone inscriptions in Vietnam, the Marble Mountains stand out not only in terms of quantity (with 79 inscriptions), but also in their integration of multiple chronological layers, richness of genres, and the gathering of generations of authors—distinguished figures and eminent personalities from all three regions of the country as well as foreign residents. Beyond that, the inscriptions on the rock faces at the Marble Mountains, with their refined stone-carving artistry preserved through the stele system of the Nguyen Lords’ era, mark a proud highlight on the map of Vietnam’s inscription heritage.”

Moreover, the Ma nhai system at the Marble Mountains is the only original documentary heritage inscribed with the royal calligraphy of Emperor Minh Mạng, carved onto the cliffs and caves. This event is recorded in historical documents such as Đại Nam Nhất Thống Chí, Đại Nam Thực Lục, and Đại Nam Dư Địa Chí Ước Biên.

More notably, the Ma nhai stele Phổ Đà Linh Trung Phật at the Marble Mountains has always served as an essential source for both domestic and international researchers when addressing issues of cultural and economic diplomacy among Vietnam, China, and Japan in particular, and maritime exchanges in the Asia-Pacific region in general.

FURTHER FULFILLING THE MISSION OF PRESERVING AND PROMOTING HERITAGE VALUES

Over nearly 400 years, from the era of the Nguyen Lords to the present, the effects of climate, time, war, and human activity have left only 52 out of 79 Han-Nom Ma nhai still legible. The remainder have been eroded by time, obscured by layers of paint and cement, cracked and damaged by war, or later altered by the chiseling away of characters or the addition of modern Vietnamese script, resulting in the distortion or loss of certain Han characters.

The Ma nhai at the Marble Mountains embody values that transcend national boundaries. Photo: Minh Trí

Early recognizing the value of the Ma nhai at the Marble Mountains, in recent years the local authorities and the Department of Culture and Sports of Da Nang City have collaborated with domestic and international experts to implement a series of projects aimed at preserving this documentary heritage. As a result, these inscribed “information carriers” have been maintained as original, unique artifacts, remaining unaltered.

The Management Board of the Marble Mountains Scenic Relic Site has developed specific measures for managing and safeguarding the heritage of the Marble Mountains in general and the Ma nhai steles in particular. These include installing visitor guide signs to prevent touching the stone steles, assigning staff to remind visitors, keeping the Ma nhai areas clean, removing harmful vegetation, and placing information panels introducing the content of the inscriptions.

In its role as the professional management body, the Da Nang Department of Culture, Sports and Tourism has stated that it is currently advising the City People’s Committee on developing a Master Plan for the preservation, restoration, and rehabilitation of the Marble Mountains Scenic Landscape. The Department is also drafting regulations and statutes on the management and protection of both tangible and intangible cultural heritage associated with the Marble Mountains.

In particular, emphasis is placed on promoting the application of digital technology to preserve the Ma nhai at the Marble Mountains, including collection, photocopying, rubbing, digitization, and transliteration with translation of the Ma nhai system to serve long-term research. This is regarded as the most effective scientific solution to safeguard this valuable and unique source of documents against the risk of deterioration caused by weather and time.

At the same time, efforts will be strengthened to promote and disseminate the collection of stone inscription documents regularly and widely through exhibitions, displays, and media channels. These include organizing activities and exhibitions of Han-Nom inscriptions during festivals, holding Han-Nom calligraphy contests, creating websites and catalogues to introduce and showcase the unique inscriptions. Special attention will be given to education and community outreach, emphasizing the vital role of local communities in safeguarding and promoting this heritage.

Focus will also be placed on scientific research, the selection and publication of works related to the inscriptions, serving studies on Buddhism in Đàng Trong as well as research into the traces left by Vietnamese and foreign visitors who once set foot at this heritage site.

Representative works from the system of rock inscriptions in the caves of Thuy Son, part of the Marble Mountains, will be selected for inclusion in schools to educate about traditions and to raise awareness among younger generations regarding the value of cultural heritage and the importance of its preservation and promotion.

Along with the aforementioned measures, the Department of Culture and Sports has also proposed several solutions for the conservation and restoration of the Ma nhai, such as cleaning and treating all inscriptions covered with moss, paint, or cement; reinforcing and reattaching cracked or broken steles; researching and establishing technical standards for the preservation of the Ma nhai; and promoting awareness among local communities and visitors regarding heritage protection.

With the various solutions being implemented, Da Nang City has been and continues striving to better fulfill the mission of preserving and promoting the value of Ma nhai at the Marble Mountains, worthy of their status as Documentary Heritage under the UNESCO Memory of the World Programme for the Asia-Pacific Region.